Electric Electronic

Electric Guitar Technology 101

2009-03-18T03:39:00.000-07:00

It is a curious paradox of the music industry: guitarists, particularly rock guitarists, are often thought of as trendsetters when it comes to fashion and culture; but when it comes to their instruments, they are notoriously conservative. Innovations such as active electronics, guitar synthesizers and Steinberger’s intrepid steps into the field of headless instruments in the 80’s have failed to make much of a dent in the market. Gibson and Fender continue to dominate the electric guitar market much as they did in the 1950’s and 60’s. Even with the entry of new competitors into the market over the years such as Ibanez, Paul Reed Smith and Charvel/Jackson, the electric guitar has remained essentially unchanged with one to three magnetic pickups and a mess of wires connecting them to the controls. But things may be about to change!

In the last couple of years a few innovations have come along that have totally turned conventional wisdom – or at least conventional guitar electronics on its head. The first is the nylon string solid body electric guitar. I first saw one of these in the hands of metal ace Yngwie Malmsteen and was blown away by the sound. For any artist who is trying to incorporate elements of classical guitar in his or her repertoire, this instrument provides the mellow classical tone of a nylon stringed guitar with the comfortable feel and action of a traditional solid body axe. This has been made possible through the tremendous advances made in recent years in the field of Piezo pickup technology. Without going into too much technical detail, the Piezo differs from a traditional magnetic pickup in that the Piezo element vibrates with the string, sending an electrical signal of that vibration to a preamp within the guitar for processing, rather than capturing an electromagnetic representation of that vibration which can then be sent directly to an amplifier, or to an onboard preamp if further shaping of the signal is desired. The Piezo eliminates the need for steel strings, which would otherwise interact with the magnetic pickup, and also produces more satisfactory results for players with a lighter fingerstyle technique. Lest you think this is just another passing fancy, Parker has produced a nylon string version of their famous “Fly” model and another up-and-comer, Sadowski Guitars, is producing a Telecaster style model employing the same technology.

Another intriguing development is in the area of computer-guitar interface. This has been long time coming, and if you consider the explosion in the popularity of digital recording with Pro Tools and similar software, it’s surprising it took as long as it did. Far and away, the leader in this field is Line 6’s Variax model. Now, I will be the first person to admit that I know just enough about computer technology to be dangerous, but I’ll try to tell you what I know from what I’ve read and from friends and acquaintances who have played the Variax. I should also state that I am in no way affiliated with Line 6 or any of their subsidiaries or partners. The Variax is, according to the Line 6 brochure a “digital modeling” guitar that allows the musician to switch between a huge array of potential sounds on one instrument. The sounds of a 12-string acoustic, Fender Stratocaster style single coils, Les Paul humbuckers, banjo, chimes and dozens of others are all available at the flick of a switch. The best part about it is that all of these tonal variations are available completely hum free. For the working musician, this means not having to lug around five to seven separate guitars to provide him with the all of the sounds he requires. The true test, however, is hearing one of these fine instruments in action, so if you’d like to check one out, a list of authorized dealers is available from the Line 6 website. At an MSRP of around $1000 for the mid-line Variax 600 – it’s also available in the 300 and 700 – it’s not cheap, but for the professional or amateur with money to burn, it may be a worthwhile investment.

There is so much more to be developed in the near future with the improvements in computer technology and miniaturization. Whole racks of effects can now be had in a box the size of a cigarette packet. This is certainly a boon for the musician in terms of both price and the effort necessary to move the equipment. I foresee a day when an entire guitarist rig, with the exception of the instrument itself will be contained within the body of the guitar itself. And while that may not be a comfort to the guitarist who finds himself at home amongst his racks of effects processors, time waits for no man, and he will eventually find himself at a crossroads in musical instrument development, much as those men did back in 1930’s and 40’s when the acoustic guitar was forced to make way for the first electric guitars.

Kenny Auyoung is the webmaster @ http://www.GetMeABand.com – Online musician search network with thousands of musician & band profiles. Find musicians, start a band, and play music

Tools You Need For Electronics Projects

2009-03-18T03:38:00.000-07:00

Assembling electronic circuits is a great way of learning electronics, and depending upon the project undertaken, a number of tools and components may be needed accordingly. However there are some basic tools and electronic components which are needed in almost all electronic projects and are a 'must have.'

The first thing to consider is the type of circuit board being used. The circuit board is what the circuit is assembled upon and connected. There are three main types of circuit boards - the breadboard, the stripboard, and the printed circuit board.

The breadboard is used for making temporary circuits and does not require soldering whereas the other two types are both permanent and require the parts to be soldered on to them.

When working on printed circuit boards or stripboards, the first tool that is required is a soldering iron. Along with the soldering iron, a solder stand, reel of solder, and solder removal wick would also be required.

In addition to the above, side cutters are required for trimming the component leads, and wire strippers for trimming the wires. A small pair of snipe nose pliers is needed for bending leads or holding small parts in place while soldering.

A flat blade screwdriver, heat sink, and electrical drill will also be very useful when working on electronic projects.

In addition to the tools, a number of electronic components are also required depending upon the project. A good collection to start with will contain capacitors, resistors, variable resistors, diodes, transistors, wires, switches, and a power source.

Having these basics will get you started experimenting with electronic circuits.

Assembly at Home Jobs - Electronics Assembly at Home Jobs

2009-03-18T03:37:00.000-07:00

Assembly at home jobs involved the assembly of many products. The beauty of this kind of work is that you will be taught the assembling techniques of a broad range of products. If you would wish to assemble electronic products, the company will provide you with a step by step instruction which would be very easy to understand because of the simple English and the illustrations that go with the step by step process of assembly instructions.

In fact, even if you have no knowledge about electronics and it would be your first time to touch and hear about the names of those tiny electronic components such as transistors, resistors, capacitors, and other electronic items, you can still go about the assembly of these products. Of course, it is a must that you know how to read and understand English correctly in order for you to be able to assemble these products based on the instructions. Actually, assembly at home jobs that would deal about the assembly of electronic parts can be of several types.

You can be given assignment to assemble electronic components that would only need tools such as long nose pliers, screw drivers and cutters. This kind of assembly will make you assemble electronic parts through the use of these tools. Another kind of electronic assembly will have to make you use an electric soldering gun and even a simple tester to test the product. With this kind of electronic assembly at home jobs, the company will have to provide the assembler with an electric soldering gun, lead for soldering and a simple electric meter for testing.

These tools will come attached with how to use guide. Anybody can easily learn to use these tools. Assembly at home jobs dealing in assembly that need specialized tools will need to have separate instructions in how to use such tools. These instructions, aside from making the user learn how to use the tools, will also provide for the necessary safety tips to preclude the worker from getting hurt through the wrong use of such equipment. It has been noted, however, that most of assembly at home jobs worker choosing electronic product assembly jobs, have some basic knowledge of electronics, the reason why they go for this kind of assembly work.

Electronic assembly at home jobs are offered by many businesses and companies involved in the manufacture of electronic products. Because of the growing market of their products that are used in many electronic applications such as FM radios, Cassette Disc players, digital cameras and even cell phones, the need for electronic assembly at home jobs workers are badly needed by these companies. This is also one reason why even those without basic knowledge in electronics are being taken in by companies so long as the applicant home worker knows how to read and follow instructions. In effect, if you think you are ready to follow instructions in the assembly work of electronics product, this kind of assembly at home job which is an easy and profitable way of using your idle time at home is truly suited for you.

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Ultrex Deep Fryers - Professional Electric Deep Fryers

2009-03-18T03:36:00.000-07:00

Modern electric deep fryers are becoming more and more popular. Gone are the days when frying meant heat, greasy mess and the ever present danger of fire. Instead, these appliances make frying safe, clean and fun. There are many fine brands available but among the best is the Ultrex deep fryer. Here's a review of what you can expect.

There are a few models o choose from, like the Ultrex stainless steel deep fryer. It's a popular choice with those who like their appliance to not only cook good, but look good. Its stainless outer casing is definitely very stylish and will adorn any kitchen counter top.

The 4-liter version has a big capacity and is great if you have a large family or regularly entertain. And, with 3 changeable temperature settings you can fry an extensive selection of foods. This is a good choice for those who want a fryer that's made of metal.

All models of these electric deep fryers come with a basket that enables you to raise and lower the food into the oil safely and without difficulty. You can raise the basket to allow the oil to drain while the lid is still closed.

Other features to be found are electric timers - some have alarms in manual and digital formats - and mechanical devices to raise and lower the basket, a ventilation method to lessen frying odors, oil filters so that you can reuse the oil the next time you want to fry.

Another feature is that it comes in by electronic, mechanical or digital temperature options, which ensure more consistency in frying and save you time.

The Ultrex Professional deep fryer is made with stainless steel and is very durable - it's one of the most durable on the market. It has removable parts for easy cleaning and oil draining. Because the Professional is a large capacity fryer it also comes with many safety features to ensure that you don't get burned..

There are many other fine brands on the market such as Presto, T-Fal and Rival. But if you're looking for a stylish appliance that stands out from a lot of the white plastic version you usually come across, then an Ultrex deep fryer could be for you.

Follow the links for the Ultrex deep fryer.

How to Find Electronic Kits For Amateurs - Learning Electronics

2009-03-18T03:35:00.000-07:00

Do you enjoy electronics and want to learn about how things work? Are you a novice and want to understand more about the principles of electricity? If this describes you, then here are some great tips on finding electronic kits for amateurs.

As society changes from a mechanical environment to a more electronic age, hobbyists are turning to models that will teach them more about how electrical devices operate. The advent of computers, cell phones, iphones and wireless devices as well as other electronic gadgets have sparked a new interest in how this medium works. People are curious about how electricity can help to generate energy in order to reduce our need for petroleum based products. Learning about electronics can help you to understand more about the devices that are being produced every day.

Here are some ideas that you can find in your local hobby shop to help you learn about electricity:

* Radio Kits
Learn about radio frequencies and how electricity is used to build portable radios. Imagine the thrill of building your own radio. Just picture your child's face as you begin to receive music and broadcasts from radio stations around the area on the radio that you built.

* Robot Electronics
One of the most popular electronic kits for amateurs is building an electronic robot. Robotics are advancing and becoming more important every day as technology improves. More kids are learning how to create their own robots and the need to understand electricity is a crucial part of that knowledge.

* Electric Motor Kits
Engine design is becoming an important topic in todays society and many automotive designers are turning to engines that can run on electricity. You may not be the next designer of a working automotive engine design, but then again you never know. However, electric motor kits can give you a great understanding about how many of todays devices are operated using an electric motor.

* HydroElectricity Kits
Learn how electricity is produced by water currents and how it is used to create power that is then transferred to power grids.

* Solar Electricity Kits
Learn how harnessing the Suns energy can create electricity to run everything from power stations to automobiles.

* Windmill Electricity Kits
Use the power of wind to generate electricity. This is becoming a huge discussion as many people are trying to improve our energy demands using the power of wind generated energy.

* Electronic Toys
Learn to build all types of toys, transmitters, race cars, helicopters and many other devices that are run on electricity.

There are literally hundreds of things you can build while learning about how electricity works. In order to find electronic kits for amateurs, check with your local hobby store or go online. You will find plenty to keep you busy and expand your knowledge of how things work.

Electronic Keyboard

2009-03-18T03:34:00.001-07:00

An electronic keyboard is a keyboard instrument that uses electricity to amplify the sound. Electronics keyboards are mostly used in musical instruments such as synthesizers, pianos and electric organs.

Electric organs are one the earliest instruments which used an electronic keyboard. They used oscillators and frequency dividers along with a network of filters to produce desirable sound in waveforms.

Keyboards reached a major milestone with the development of the synthesizer in the 1960s. Now, various advanced types of synthesizers using electronic keyboards are available in market.

Many instruments which have electronic keyboards are equipped with Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI). This helps in the diversified use of the electronics keyboard. Some keyboards are not attached to any instrument, but are only MIDI controllers.

Electronic keyboards make it easy to create music. Most of these keyboards can also be connected to a computer for performing multimedia activities. However, you may require certain software to ensure that your electronic keyboard is compatible with your computer.

Electronics keyboards are available in a wide variety of shapes, sizes, colors and price ranges. There are several web sites which sell them online. The electronic keyboard industry has been growing at a rapid pace over the last couple of decades. New technological innovations ensure that the old models get obsolete quite quickly in this market.

There are several companies which sell only secondhand electronic keyboards, but with a warranty. If you try hard, there is every possibility that you can get a good deal. However, if you can afford a new one, that is the best option. And do not forget that with advent of Chinese electronic equipment in the market, an electronic keyboard has become an affordable item for most people.

Electric Shavers Vs Razors

2009-03-18T03:32:00.000-07:00

Have you battled between the 2? If you are like most other men out there I am sure you have! I know I have bounced back and forth. I just wanted to take a moment and share with you some of the pros and cons of each so that you can maybe make an educated decision on which one would work best for you!

First we will look at Electric Shavers!
Pros:
There are several advantages electric shavers have over the good ole razor. It is definitely more convenient to have an electric shaver. It takes much less time to shave your face. It is also mobile! Which means you are running late to work you can always have one stashed in the car so you can shave on the way to work or the safer method just shave in the bath real quick when you get there. Shaving and driving don't always mix well. Another advantage of electric shavers is that you aren't always having to replace blades and what not. If these advantages look good to maybe an electric shaver is what you need.

Cons:
There are also several disadvantages to electric shavers. Some say they don't shave close enough! Some peoples skin is more sensitive and they irritate it. It is an electrical device which means that it can have problems if not properly maintained. And replacement parts can be kind of pricey.

Nest we will take a look at the good ole razor blade!
Pros:
Many people prefer razors over electric shavers because they get you a much closer smoother shave. They are also very simple to use no electronics or anything that could go wrong or break. Some people have sensitive skin that an electric shaver will irritate real bad.

Cons:
Razors are very sharp! You may cut yourself if you are not careful with what you are doing. Razors are not as mobile as electric shavers therefore it is not as convenient you can't just whip at a razor anywhere and give yourself a quick shave! You also have to constantly replace the razor heads with new ones because they dull quickly.

So if you are busy on the go professional I feel electric shavers will meet your needs better, however if you are someone who is quite detail oriented and wants things done precisely you may like using the good ole razor better! But its your decision! I recommend trying both and seeing which one fits you better!

Troubleshoot Electronic Components Techniques

2009-03-18T03:31:00.000-07:00

Troubleshooting and fault analysis requires a good theoretical knowledge and analytical thinking. It is not something which can be studied from books, but has to be acquired through constant troubleshooting and experimenting. However, there are guidelines that can be followed to the troubleshooting process. Nearly anyone who is familiar with basic electronic theory can learn troubleshooting techniques and fix many types of electronic failures. To troubleshoot, you simply follow logical, step-by-step procedures to arrive at a solution. Basically, troubleshooting depends on the circuit complexity, on symptoms, and on the personal experience. The most common troubleshooting techniques are listed below:

Power check:

Many times a simple issue such as a blown fuse or a flat battery is the cause of a circuit malfunction. Initially, therefore, ensure that the power cord is plugged in and that the fuses are not blown. If the circuit is battery powered, make sure that the voltage level is acceptable. If a power supply rectifier is present, check the level of the voltage at the output and make sure that the circuit is powered with the correct polarity.

Visual inspection:

This inspection is part of the so-called sensory checks. Sensory checks rely on the human senses to detect a possible fault. The visual inspection of the PCB is the simplest troubleshooting technique (which is very effective in many of the cases). The soldered joints have to be inspected thoroughly. If any doubts exist about the quality of a certain joint, it has to be re-soldered. The PCB has to be inspected visually for any burnt components.

Sometimes, components that overheat leave a brown mark on the board. They can be used as 'starting points' in the troubleshooting process and the reasons why they overheat have to be determined. It is bad practice simply to replace such components, without trying to find out what actually caused the component to overheat. In many cases, the reason is a faulty (or out of range) component near the failed component. It also has to be replaced.

Using a sense of touch:

Overheated components can be detected by simply touching them. However, this check has to be performed with extreme caution. The circuit has to be turned off, and some time allowed for the large capacitors to discharge. Always touch the components with the right hand only. This is important because in the case of electric shock it is less likely that the current will pass through the heart. If possible, wear insulated shoes.

In addition, care should be taken not to burn the fingers. Using the sense of touch is a very useful troubleshooting technique in circuits, where everything seems to work properly for a while, and then the circuit fails, due to overheating of a certain component. Identifying such components helps to detect the possible cause of the fault. Special freezing sprays are available, which allow instant freezing of components. If the circuit begins to operate properly immediately after the heated component is sprayed, this is an indication that this component is causing the circuit failure.

Before replacing the component, further investigation is needed to determine what caused the overheating in the first place.

Smell check:

When certain components fail due to overheating it is possible in most cases to detect a smell of smoke. This is usually the case, if the technician happens to be there at the time the accident occurred. If not, it is usually possible to detect the failed component by visual inspection afterwards.

Component replacement:

This troubleshooting method relies mostly on the operator's skills and experience. Certain symptoms are an obvious indication of a particular component failure. This statement is especially true for an experienced electronic technician. For example, some TV service technicians can unmistakably identify the failed component in a TV set (even before opening it), by just briefly examining the symptoms.

Component replacement is a good troubleshooting technique for an experienced electronics technician, as it saves a lot of time and money. Moreover, this technique guarantees the success of the repair, because if enough components are replaced, eventually the faulty one will be replaced too. However, it is recommended that the amateur technician initially applies some logical thinking to the troubleshooting process.

Signal tracing:

This troubleshooting technique is not the most common one, but it is the most desirable, as it requires intelligent and logical thinking from the troubleshooter. This method is based on the measuring of the signal at various test points along the circuit.

A test point in the circuit is the point, where the value of the voltage is known to the operator. This troubleshooting technique relies on finding a point, where the signal becomes incorrect. Thus, the operator knows that the problem exists in that portion of the circuit, between the point where the signal becomes incorrect, and the point where the signal appeared correct for the last time. In other words, the operator constantly narrows the searched portion of the circuit, until he finds what caused the fault.

There are two basic approaches in conducting the signal tracing.

In the first approach, the signal check starts from the input, checking consecutively the test points towards the output. The checks are carried out, until a point when an incorrect signal is found. The second approach is to start from the output and to work backwards towards the input in the same manner until a correct signal appears.

Following these simple steps will often fix a broken components on circuit board. However, if you are still having issues I can recommend Testing Electronics Components by Jestine Yong to help you learn more on electronics repair (TV, computer monitor, vcd player, etc). This guide will teach you test methods to recognize fault in electronics circuits.

Automotive Electronics Plug You Into Safety

2009-03-18T03:27:00.000-07:00

Every day, virtually everything around us becomes a little smarter and a little safer. In our age of information and technology, new digital and electronic components continually make our lives easier and safer at home, at work and on the road.

Some gadgets and gizmos, like nose hair trimmers, could easily disappear without much fuss. There are many intelligent tools, on the other hand, that make our lives more convenient and safer on a daily basis.

Our enormous world of "smart" technology is ruled by new automotive electronics. Anti-lock brakes, electronic stability control and other indispensable features are excellent examples of smart and safe automotive electronics.

Through recent developments within the automotive industry, there has been a huge increase in the number of electronic devices installed at assembly plants. Here's an example of how quickly cars have evolved electronically: the Apollo 11 traveled to the moon and back again, using just 150 kilobytes of onboard memory. Today's typical CD player, however, uses a whopping 500 kilobytes of memory just to keep our favorite songs from skipping. That uninterrupted music is an iota of how electronics impact a car's performance to benefit drivers.

The term used to describe the technology involved in automobile communication systems is "Telematics", and it was first used to describe the blending of telecommunications and "informatics", or information technology. The telematics industry recently commanded an increased amount of attention from car manufacturers. Industry insiders predicted that telematics would become "the" go-to technology as early as the mid-1990s. Telematics was expected to increase overall sales and transform the automotive industry into a major player in mobile technology.

In reality, these optimistic forecasts panned out to be a little less than initially predicted. As more conservative measures came in to play, the initial industry projection of more than $40 billion dollars has been whittled nearly in half.

By no means do these numbers indicate an abandonment of the development of telematics technology. Automobile manufacturers have, in fact, invested an average of $2000 on electronic systems for every vehicle coming off the line. That's a huge increase over the $110-per-car budget set in the early 1970s. The spending increase is reflected in everything from better engine performance and improved entertainment systems, to security features and safety devices. All of the electronic components work together to provide drivers with more comfortable, better performing and safer automobiles.

Here are some of the most common safe and smart automotive electronics systems:

CAN, or Controller Area Network

Your car doesn't run on one computer; it operates with a network of computers. The Controller Area Network links all of the computers together. This type of system is similar to those used in home and business computers, known as Local Area Networks (LANs). The Controller Area Network in your car links the many separate computer systems together and allows them to communicate with each other. These interconnected systems incorporate critical systems like engine management, cruise control and anti-lock brakes with less demanding applications like seat controls and automatic windows.

Increased Fuel Efficiency

Shrinking resources and soaring fuel prices have forced automotive manufacturers to increase their supply of fuel-efficient vehicles. Smart auto makers are using new automotive electronics to create cars that burn fuel more efficiently. This is most evident with the common EFI, or electronic fuel injection system. Hybrid vehicles have taken this technology one step further, with electronic devices that allow drivers to switch automatically between gas and electric engines.

Trustworthy Safety Devices

There are two types of devices designed to protect the safety of the driver and passengers: active and passive devices.

* Active: These devices never stop working to ensure the safety of the driver and passengers. DSR (dynamic steering response), TCS (traction control) and ASR (acceleration slip regulation) are all examples of active safety devices. You may not notice these systems in operation, but they're always working to create a safer ride. Active devices can sense the road and driving conditions and adjust your car's performance accordingly. Researchers have credited ESC (electronic stability control) with reducing single vehicle skids.

* Passive: While more visible and seemingly simpler, passive devices are also controlled by smart and safe automotive electronics. Developments in electronics and technology have improved the deployment of airbags tremendously over the years. Airbags in early-model cars would deploy too soon or too late and provided little or no benefit to the driver and passengers. Now, cars have more advanced systems that can actually sense conditions that may lead to a high collision impact. Seating adjustment and airbag systems are automatically deployed to minimize the impact and decrease the degree of injury to driver and passengers.

When you consider the safety advancements that have been made in just a decade, you'll agree that today's cars are miles above their predecessors. Our automobiles provide so much more than a lift from point "A" to point "B". With smart automotive electronics, every trip is as comfortable, secure and safe as possible.

Latest Semiconductor Lithography Developments!

2008-11-20T13:13:00.000-08:00

Introduction

Moore's law has governed the growth of the semiconductor industry. The main factor of producing complex devices at lower cost is lithography. Optical lithography has been reaching the physical limit and therefore leads to the development of alternate techniques. Immersion lithography has recently attracted interest in the research industry. Of other alternatives, many consider extreme ultraviolet lithography and nano-imprint lithography as potential successors to optical lithography. Lastly we also analyze the potential of x-ray lithography and electron beam lithography as possible candidates.

Immersion Lithography

The uniqueness about Immersion Lithography is seen in the replacement of air with ultrapure water as the medium between the lens and the wafer. This pushes the physical limits of NA for the exposure systems beyond NA=1 for air, given the following relation: NA=n sin alpha = d/2f. Ultra pure water is highly suitable as it has a refraction index of 1.47, absorption of <5%>

Extreme Ultraviolet Lithography

EUVL uses light sources with wavelength (13.4nm) 10 times shorter than current wavelengths (139nm). This will make possible fabrication of circuit lines smaller than 0.1 microns in width, extendable to below 30nm. EUVL masks are reflective masks, with a patterned absorber of EUV radiation placed on top of an ML (multilayer thin film with alternating layers of Mo and Si) reflector deposited on a robust and solid substrate, such as a silicon wafer. The key requirement is to make a mask with essentially no defects. The strong absorption of EUV radiation by all materials poses the main problem in developing a satisfactory photoresist for EUV lithography. . The thin layer imaging is already a mature technology, thus resist is no longer a critical issue. Printed lines as small as 50nm in photoresist has already been achieved.

The Virtual National Laboratory (VNL) formed by the three Laboratories - Lawrence Livermore, Lawrence Berkeley, and Sandia/California, has developed and built a prototype extreme ultraviolet lithography (EUVL) system called the engineering test stand (ETS). This ETS has produced test patterns with a line-to-spacing ratio of 1:1 with high fidelity down to line widths of 70 nm using its Set-2-optic. By adjusting the illumination pattern and the exposure dose, the team printed less densely spaced lines with widths down to 39 nm. It is thus able to meet the production requirements set for chips with 1 billion transistors and up in the years 2007 to 2010.

X-ray Lithography

The basic set up of a typical XRL system is by using a synchrotron as an x ray source. Synchrotron-based XRL provides a wide exposure-dose window, which is very important in ULSI fabrication. Insensitivity to dust is another advantage, which will affect the amount of pattern defects. The source is an electromagnetic wave, which is generated when high-energy electrons are accelerated. To minimize x ray absorption, the mask substrate is made of a thin membrane consisting of materials with a low atomic number. The issue pertaining to this method is that here is a need for an overlay accuracy which will meet the requirements of sub -0.1-um ULSI fabrication, while another issue is throughput. By properly choosing of median wavelength, proximity x-ray lithography (PXRL) can be extended to 50nm using relatively large mask/wafer gaps. This can be achieved by increasing the energy of the storage ring, decreasing the incident angle on the beamline mirror, and utilizing a diamond mask substrate. Increasing the median energy to 2.6 to 2.7keV allows printing of smaller features down to 35nm by using a harder spectrum, choosing the appropriate materials for the mask and the resist match the transmission and absorption at this high energies.

Electron beam lithography

Electron beam lithography applies direct writing method to scan electron beam across various material surface covered with resist film to create desired extensive patterns on the substrates. Because of the high energy electron beam (tens to hundred eV), it totally eliminates the diffraction effect; however, it can make damages to the substrate material. The resolution is now limited by aberration of electron optics and scattering effects which is more severe. Through scattering effect correction, it can reach a resolution about 10-20nm. As the pattern generation is carried out through scanning the surface pixel by pixel controlled by computer aided design (CAD), this leads to very slow speed, thus very low throughput. Although this E-beam direct writing does not require a mask which usually costs a lot for specific material, delicate equipment cost and frequent maintains are usually very expensive up to millions of dollars, thus mass production is economically unfavorable. These speed and cost considerations limit its application in mass commercial production for 50 nm feature size although it has a high level resolution. Instead this technique is used to produce high quality mask with good resolution and also widely used in research purpose.

Nano-imprint Lithography (NIL)

NIL creates a resist relief pattern by deforming the resist physical shape with embossing, instead of modifying the resist chemical structure with radiation or creating the pattern by self-assembly. The pattern is then transferred into the material to be etched (a Si wafer for example) using the resist as a mask. The key advantage of this lithographic technique is the ability to pattern sub-25 nm structures over a large area with a high-throughput and low-cost. Unlike conventional lithography methods, imprint lithography itself does not use any energetic beams. Therefore, nano-imprint lithography's resolution is not limited by the effects of wave diffraction, scattering and interference in a resist, and backscattering from a substrate.

There are two advancements in this technology recently. A new UV based nanoimprint lithography (UV-NIL) has been developed and demonstrated at AMO as attractive alternative to the hot embossing technique. The low pressure (<1bar)>

Comparison

In choosing the most promising technology that could allow for 50nm feature size and below, we considered the following factors in our decision. They are the cost of the technology, the throughput of the method, the amount of constraints that it is facing at the moment and the possibility of the technology to produce 50nm feature size.

Micron developed super fast SSD: 250 MB/s

2008-08-09T11:23:00.001-07:00

Micron is starting production of a new line of solid state drives (SSD) that offer much faster data rates than were previously possible. The new drives are capable of 250MB/s data transfer and come in two lines, an enterprise-class RealSSD P200 and the client-focused RealSSD C200. The company hopes the increased speed and reduced power consumption of the new drives will encourage their adoption by the server market. “We are seeing SSD interest in a variety of applications where historically hard disk drives have reigned,” said Dean Klein, vice president of memory system development at Micron.

“For many, the most logical place is in notebook computers, but there is incredible value for SSDs in enterprise server systems.” The P200 range come in sizes from 16GB to 128GB in 2.5 inch modules, with the C200 ranging from 16GB to 256GB, and comes in 2.5 and 1.5 inch modules for better take-up by notebook manufacturers. The company is claiming that the P200 drives are 10 times faster than traditional platter drives, use a tenth of the power and last about four times as long.

Source: Vnunet

The Semiconductor Revolution

2008-07-13T22:50:00.000-07:00

Semiconductors are responsible for the computer revolution, which began in the mid 20th century and is still continuing. Miniaturization of computer components, transistors and diodes made of semiconductors such as silicon and germanium, has resulted in computers becoming smaller, faster, and having larger memory capacity according to Moore's Law, an empirical law which states that computer speed and memory capacity both double approximately every 18 to 24 months. As a result, computers are now over a billion times faster and have over a billion times the memory capacity of ENIAC, the world's first computer, built in 1946.

A semiconductor is an element which is intermediate between a conductor and an insulator. There are two types of semiconductors, denoted P-type and N-type. N-type semiconductors have a small excess of electrons, provided by a small amount of impurity added to them. P-type semiconductors have a small excess of "holes", i.e. missing electrons. Electrons can flow from the junction of an N-type to a P-type semiconductor but not the other way around. As a result, current can only flow one way across a P-N junction. This is what makes semiconductors so useful and has allowed them to take the place of vacuum tubes. Transistors and diodes both rely on the one-way property of current flow across P-N junctions.

What has made computers faster, smaller, and have more memory according to Moore's Law has been the ability to miniaturize the components. ENIAC used large, clumsy vacuum tubes the size of one's fist. Since the invention of the transistor in 1947, transistors and diodes, which have replaced vacuum tubes, have been made smaller and smaller. Now these components are etched on chips, their size being the order of 100 nanometers. Eventually Moore's Law will break down though, once transistor size reaches the atomic scale. This is estimated to occur by around the year 2019.

by David Terr

How To Tune A Guitar Using An Electronic Tuner

2008-07-13T20:09:00.000-07:00

When just one string plays a little too high or too low the whole guitar can sound dreadful. Unfortunately, even expensive guitars, fall out of tune quite easily. In fact, professionals are lucky if they stay in tune for just a half dozen songs in a row.

Learning how to tune your guitar is one of those absolutely essential skills that every player absolutely, positively must acquire. It is equal in importance to learning how to play chords and read tabs.

Tuning With An Electronic Tuner

An electronic or electric tuner is often a small, light weight, inexpensive device that listens to a plucked open string, compares it to an internal reference data base, then provides a visual indicator if the note is sharp or flat. As you loosen or tighten the string it gives you constant feedback until it is in tune.

These wonderful devices should definitely have a place in every guitar case because many people have greater visual than auditory acuity. They can be especially helpful if you have not yet developed an ear for sensing small differences between pitches.

The down side is that there is always a small but sometimes significant margin of error. Sometimes a string that may seem in tune according to the device may actually be out of tune relative to the other strings.

To offset this margin of error, slowly strum chords across the entire neck of the guitar and fine tune each string by what sounds good. Be careful not to strum only one or two chords at just one end of the neck. This will sometimes produce out of tune notes at the other end of the neck. Find a compromise tuning that best fits them all, (or at least the chords of the songs you intend to play).

Electronic Guitar Tuners By Function

Electric tuners can be categorized by how they sense sound. Here are the main categories:

Sensing Sound vibrations in the air through a small built in microphone. Often this type has a socket for directly plugging in an electric guitar. The least expensive models are usually battery operated and offer just standard tuning options. This can be the perfect starter combination for beginners.

Sensing vibrations by touching the guitar. This type is useful in a noisy environment since it is deaf to sounds in the air. However, I have found that these tuners can be a bit slow to produce a read out. They are also not effective when used with a solid body electric guitar.

sensing vibrations electronically sensing by directly plugging in for electric guitars or acoustic guitars with amplification pick ups. Some models have input and output sockets so that you can leave them plugged in and still use the amplifier. Some variations are designed to act like an effects foot switch for easy operation during a concert. This type of tuner is useful for quick and convenient tuning in a noisy environment.

Sensing vibrations by light waves bouncing off the vibrating string. This type is called a strobe tuner. It is often thought to be the most accurate and also the most expensive. This is used most often by advanced players or professionals.

Common Options Available For Electronic Tuners

Price Range: Expect to pay $10 to $50 USD for most beginner electronic tuners and $100 to $1000 for the professional strobe models. Fortunately, much can be accomplished with tuners in the $10-50 range.

Chromatic Tuning: allows you to tune to any note in the chromatic scale and not just the six standard open string notes. This is especially helpful if a string is so far out of tune that you don't know where to begin.

This feature is absolutely essential for songs that were written for alternate tunings. Jimi Hendrix, Stevie Ray Vaughn, the Beatles and the Rolling Stones are a just a few of the many artists that have used alternate tunings.

Combination Tuners: some tuners are available with metronomes, bass tuners or even chord charts built in. The down side is that if you break it you also loose the use of the other devices.

Power Options: some tuners operate on batteries only and some offer AC/DC adapters as an alternate power source. Many battery only versions do not require much power which results in a surprising long battery life.

The battery only versions are often compact for stuffing into your guitar cases.

Recommendation For Beginners: buy a small, inexpensive (under $50), battery operated chromatic tuner that has a built in microphone for tuning acoustic guitars and an input for direct plugging electrics. Also, consider buying a model that contains a metronome.

Tuning a guitar requires compromise and personal choice.

It is important to understand that tuning a guitar is always a matter of compromise and personal choice. Try not to get stuck trying to tune the guitar perfectly according to the blinking lights of an electronic tuner but, instead focus on finding the best artistic compromise for the songs you intend to play.